Introduction
Aristotle is a towering figure in ancient Greek Philosophy, making
contributions to logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany,
ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre. He was a student of Plato who in turn studied under Socrates. He
was more empirically-minded than Plato or Socrates and is famous for rejecting
Plato's theory of forms.
As a prolific writer and polymath, Aristotle
radically transformed most, if not all, areas of knowledge he touched. It is no
wonder that Aquinas referred to him simply as "The
Philosopher." In his lifetime, Aristotle wrote as many as 200 treatises,
of which only 31 survive. Unfortunately for us, these works are in the form of
lecture notes and draft manuscripts never intended for general readership, so
they do not demonstrate his reputed polished prose style which attracted many
great followers, including the Roman Cicero.
Aristotle was the first to classify areas of human knowledge into distinct
disciplines such as mathematics, biology, and ethics. Some of these
classifications are still used today.
As the father of the field of
logic, he was the first to develop a formalized system for reasoning. Aristotle
observed that the validity of any argument can be determined by its structure
rather than its content. A classic example of a valid argument is his
syllogism: All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is
mortal. Given the structure of this argument, as long as the premises are true,
then the conclusion is also guaranteed to be true. Aristotle’s brand of logic
dominated this area of thought until the rise of modern propositional logic and predicate logic 2000 years later.
Aristotle
played an important role in carving out a more suitable path for educational
growth of children from birth to adolescence. His philosophical stand points
have been of great source of inspiration not only in his respective land but in
other parts of the globe as well since ages.
ARISTOTLE
(384 BC- 322 BC)
His
Life
Aristotle
was born in 384 BC at Stagirus, a Greek colony and seaport situated on the
coast of Thrace. His father Nichomachus was court physician to King Amyntas of
Macedonia, and from this began Aristotle’s long association with the Macedonian
Court, which considerably influenced his life. At the age of 17 he was sent to
Athens, the intellectual centre of the world, to complete his education. He
joined the Academy and studied under Plato, attending his lectures for a period
of twenty years. In the later years of his association with Plato and the
Academy he began to lecture on his own account, especially on the subject of
rhetoric. At the invitation of his friend Hermeas, ruler of Atarneus and Assos
in Mysia, Aristotle left for his court. He stayed there for three years and
married Pythias, the niece of the king. In his later life he was married a
second time a woman named Herpyllis, who bore him a son, Nichomachus. At the end of three years, Aristotle went to
Mytilene and became the tutor of his 13 year old son Alexander (later world
conqueror) for the next five years. Both Philip and Alexander appear to have
paid Aristotle high honour.
Upon
the death of Philip, Alexander succeeded to the kingship and prepared for his
subsequent conquests. Aristotle’s work having finished, he returned to Athens.
He set up his own school at a place called Lyceum. For the next thirteen years
he devoted his energies to his teaching and composing his philosophical
treatises. He is said to have given two kinds of lectures: the more detailed
discussions in the morning for an inner circle of advanced students and the
popular discourses in the evening for the general body of the lovers of
knowledge. At the sudden death of Alexander in 323 BC, the pro- Macedonian government
in Athens was overthrown, and a general reaction occurred against anything
Macedonian. A charge of impiety was trumped up against him. To escape
prosecution he fled to Chalcis in Euboea. In the first year of his residence at
Chalcis he complained of a stomach illness and died in 322 BC.
Writings
It
is reported that Aristotle’s writings were held by his student Theophrastus,
who had succeeded Aristotle in leadership of the school. Theophrastus’ library passed
to his pupil Neleus. To protect the books from theft, Neleus’s heirs concealed
them in a vault, where they were damaged somewhat by dampness, moths and worms.
In this hiding place they were discovered about 100BC by Apellicon, a rich book
lover, and brought to Athens. They were later taken to Rome after the capture
of Athens by Sulla in 86 BC. In Rome they soon attracted the attention of
scholars, and the new edition of them gave fresh impetus to the study of
Aristotle and of philosophy in general. This collection is the basis of the
works of Aristotle that we have today.
The
works of Aristotle fall under three headings:
1. Dialogues
and other works of a popular character.
2. Collections
of facts and material from scientific treatment.
3. Systematic
works.
Among
his writings of a popular nature the only one which we possess of any
consequence is the interesting tract On the Polity of the Athenians. The works
on the second group include 200 titles; most in fragments collected by
Aristotle’s school and used research. Some may have been done at the time of
Aristotle’s successor Theophrastus. Included in this group are constitutions of
158 Greek states. The systematic treatises of the third group are marked by a
plainness of style, with none of the golden flow of language which the ancients
praised in Aristotle. This may be due to the fact that these works were not, in
most cases, published by Aristotle himself or during his lifetime, but were
edited after his death from unfinished manuscripts.
Aristotle’s
systematic treatises may be grouped in several divisions.
1. Logic
a) Categories
(10 classifications of terms)
b) On
Interpretation (Propositions, truth, modality)
c) Prior
Analytics(syllogistic logic)
d) Posterior Analytics (scientific method and syllogism)
e) Topics
(rules for effective arguments and debate)
f) On
Sophistical Refutations (informal fallacies)
2. Physical
works
a) Physics
(explains change, motion, void, time)
b) On
the Heavens ( structure of heaven, earth, elements)
c) On
Generation (through combining material constituents)
d) Meterologies
(origin of comets, weather, disasters)
3. Psychological
works
a) On
the Soul ( explains faculties, senses, mind, imagination)
b) On
Memory, Reminiscence, Dreams and Prophesying.
4. Works
on natural history
a) History
of Animals (physical/ mental qualities, habits)
b) On
the parts of Animals
c) On
the Movements of Animals
d) On
the Progression of Animals
e) On
the Generation of Animals
f) Minor
treatises
g) Problems
5. Philosophical
works
a) Metaphysics
(substance, cause, form, potentiality)
b) Nicomachean
Ethics (soul, happiness, virtue, friendship)
c) Eudemain
Ethics
d) Magna
Moralia
e) Politics
(best states, utopias, constitutions, revolutions)
f) Rhetoric
(elements of forensic and political debate)
g) Poetics
(tragedy, epic poetry)
Aristotle’s
Philosophical Ideas
Aristotle’s philosophical ideas may
b regarded as related to one’s experience in the material world. Aristotle’s
has accepted four principle causes for the creation of anything. Firstly, here
is a material cause with which a thing is made. Then secondly, one should have
the conception of the form according to which the thing has to be moulded. This
is the formal cause. Thirdly, one should have the needed capacity to complete
the work. This may be regarded as the efficient cause. Fourthly, there should
be an aim behind the thing to be created. This means that one should know the
utility of the thing in view. Aristotle has termed this fourth cause as the
completing or final cause. Aristotle thinks that these four causes leading to
the creation of anything.
The
Principle of Hedonism
In order to understand Aristotle, it
is necessary to know his principle of hedonism. Aristotle did not like to give prominence
to “ideas” as Plato had done, because he believed that ‘an idea’ gives only ‘a
form’ to a thing and it has no other value. When we try to become good or want
to obtain something by becoming good we attain happiness.
The power of thought is the basis of
all powers of man. It is because of the power of thought that one man differs
from another. A man proceeds to ‘pleasure’ when the power of thought is
developed in him and when this power is developed in him fully he experiences
pleasure. It is through good means that one can obtain a good thing. In other words,
for a good end, good means is necessary. Thus according to Aristotle, both ends
and means have equal importance. Therefore Aristotle emphasized the qualities
of means and for obtaining ‘goodness’ he has advised to follow a golden mean.
Aristotle has talked of three forms of each attribute. These three forms are
abundance, shortage and third is the position in between these two. Aristotle
has not approved either abundance or shortage of any attribute. Therefore he
has recommended the ‘Golden mean’ as the best path to be followed by a person.
According to Aristotle a man does
not do a good work because of any particular goodness in him. He thinks that a
man has the attribute of goodness because of his habit of doing good work. Thus
Aristotle is of the view that only that person is called ‘good’ who performs
good work. According to him goodness comes out of doing good things. Aristotle
has attached great importance to the ‘right work’.
Aristotle’s
Concept of an Ideal Man
According to Aristotle, the ideal
man is he who can thoroughly does right things by following the golden mean.
The nature of the ideal man as described by Aristotle in his book entitled
‘Ethics’ is like this: “The ideal man does not invite any trouble without any
cause, but he is prepared even to sacrifice his life in certain situations. In
dealing with people, he is very frank and speaks his mind quite without any
reservation. He does not talk ill of any one, nor does he think of evil against
any one. He does not harbour mean thoughts in his mind”. Needless to add that
it was with the principal aim of developing such an ideal person that Aristotle
has conceived his educational ideas.
Aristotle’s
view’s on the educational problems of the day
To Aristotle education should be a
function of the state. It must be same
for all citizens. Aristotle thinks that in order to prevent revolution and
class conflicts property, wealth and honours must be equalized as far as
possible and at the same time desires of the citizens should also be equalized.
This equalization will be possible only by equalizing educational opportunities
through a strict regimentation of uniformity of education and training.
Aristotle’s
Educational Philosophy
Aristotle has regarded education as
a function of the state. The state should control the education of growing
children. Aristotle wanted to educate children for national ends. He has
recommended that children should be so developed as to fulfill the purposes of the
state of which they happen to be citizens. Children should be exposed to
hardships, in order to make them strong. He wanted that the state should
control education in its own interest and for social and political solidarity.
Hence he has recommended that education should be of the same type for all. He
wanted that education should be conducted by the state law and should be a
function of the state. Aristotle was in favour of the Spartan system of
regimentation, but he did not like hardening of children by excessive gymnastic
exercises and hard military training and transmitting no intellectual cultures.
The
Aim of Education
To Aristotle the aim of education is
to procure and guarantee happiness for life. This happiness has to be both for
the individual and the state. Aristotle has emphasized that this can be
obtained through harmonious functioning of all the faculties of man and all the
executive and administrative organs of the state. In education he gives special
importance to the development of good habits which depend upon good deeds.
One of the principal aims of
education according to Aristotle is to develop good character. He had no faith
in imparting instruction for the sake of knowledge only. He wanted to give
liberal education to Athenians. By imparting liberal education his purpose was
to enable an individual to attain full pleasures of life. So to enable an
individual to attain pleasures of life may be regarded as another main aim of
education according to Aristotle.
Function
of Education According to Aristotle
Aristotle wants that education must
enable one to do everything in the right manner. He thinks that the development
of soul depends upon the development of the body. Therefore he has recommended
the inclusion of sports, gymnastic and music in a scheme of education. In fact,
he was against excess of anything. He thinks that too much mental work tells
upon the body and too much physical work affects the mental growth adversely.
So enough intervals should be allowed between physical and mental work. Music
along with giving recreation should help in acquisition of arts helpful in life
and also in gymnastics. So he has recommended that music may be used for
recreation after hard physical and mental labour.
The
problem of the Curriculum
Aristotle has recommended the reality
and writing for their practical use. Such subjects are useful in domestic
affairs, in earning money and in political affairs. Besides, many kinds of
knowledge may be acquired through reading and writing. Drawing may also be
taught for enabling one to understand the work of art. Aristotle is not in
favour of too much gymnastic exercise as he thinks that too much culture of the
body is likely to make one brute. He regards nobility of heart is more
important.
Aristotle recommends that from the
age of seven years to puberty children should be given light gymnastics
exercises which must not be straining. When the puberty is near, there should
be no gymnastic training at least for three years. But from the 16 years of age
to 21 hard gymnastic training should be given to an individual. It may be noted
that according to Aristotle the aim of physical education should be ensure
agility, health mainly beauty and health.
Aristotle has not recognized the
importance of music in development of the child. He had no fondness for lyric
poetry. Similarly, he could not understand the importance of dance and drama in
the development of the child. Aristotle has not appreciated the importance
music to an appreciable degree. He has even condemned all such musical
instruments that require great skill in learning.
Moral
and Intellectual Education
Aristotle attached great importance
to intellectual instruction as he considered it necessary for making one a good
citizen. As regards moral education, he does not think that one acquire ethical
character through theoretical knowledge, because knowledge does not necessarily
making one moral. He believed that a student must get habituated for doing good
things. He must love and must hate what is ignoble. For becoming good we must
possess the virtue in our personality and not only know about the nature of
virtue.
Only
Practical Education for Slaves
Aristotle had no sympathy for the
slaves in his country. He considered them as destined to the life of toil and
hardship. According to him slaves were suitable only for carrying on vocations
relating to handicrafts and other trades of similar nature. Aristotle wants
that citizens of the state must not be given training in such vocations as they
will distort their body and they will deprive them (the citizens) of the time
necessary for doing the duties as citizens. Since the slaves did not enjoy the
rights of a citizen, Aristotle deprives them of any liberal education and
considers them fit only for practical education in handicrafts and trades.
Method
of learning
Aristotle believes that all true
knowledge is based on direct experience through induction. He has advised young
men against studying such subjects as Philosophy, Politics and Physics because
they do not have the sufficient experiences for understanding them. Aristotle
believes that the mind proceeds from concrete to the abstract, from the
definite to the indefinite, from particular to general and from the known to
the unknown. He has explained at length the deductive method with the result that
the fundamental process of induction and observation did not receive due
importance.
Organization
of Education
Infancy
Aristotle wants that infants should
be brought up by parents in the home. Infants should have enough movements.
They should be given opportunity to play and recreation. Aristotle considers
crying is good for health. He considers it as a kind of gymnastic exercise for
children. Stories and tales that are to be told to children should be a prelude
to their preparation for later life. From the age of five to seven years
children should not be kept in the company of servants. They nor to bear to see
any indecency.
Elementary
stage of Education
This stage extends between 7 years
of age up to puberty. For this stage Aristotle has accepted the ordinary subjects.
Secondary
stage of Education
Aristotle accepted puberty as the
dividing line between boyhood and early youth period. He has recommended the
study of mathematics as one of the main subjects of study at this stage. To him
the subject of mathematics was to include arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and
theory of music. Besides mathematics he has recommended the study of
instrumental music, grammar, poetry, geography and literature also.
Higher
Stage of Education
Aristotle
has recommended higher education for youth after the age of twenty one years.
The main subjects to be taught at this stage according to him were ethics,
psychology, education and politics. Aristotle thought that the study of such
subjects was necessary for acquiring the art of ideal citizenship in the sense
of duties and rights. Aristotle considered the study of psychology as the foundation for education, politics,
ethics, rhetoric and other subjects that might be necessary for making one a
good citizen. In addition to these subjects, Aristotle has also recommended the
study of biological and physical sciences.
Impact
of Aristotle
Aristotle’s theory of education had
little impact on Greece of his days. He greatly influenced Plutarch. Moreover,
his work entitled De Interpretations was edited by the Neo-Platonist Porphyry
and it had for reaching impact on the school, men of the medieval ages.
In Syria and Arabia Aristotle’s
metaphysics, science and logic were included in the curriculum of schools and
colleges. Moreover, there can be no denying of the fact that Aristotle’s views
on education as detailed out his book Politics immensely the scholars of the Middle
Ages.
After Aristotle his writings were
translated by scholars in Syria, Arab and Egypt. These translations influenced
the cultural developments in these lands. Aristotle’s impact on the Christian
religion may easily be sensed. Aristotle was a scientist also. His theory of
inductive method was highly appreciated by scholars of the medieval period. It
is true that Aristotle could not influence the people of his days, but his
impact on the scientific tendencies as developed in later centuries may easily
be felt. Aristotle’s influence is further evident by the fact that many of the
tendencies towards reformation in education today have been basically grown out
of Aristotle’s fundamental ideas. The kind of organization of education as
suggested by Aristotle is found still inspiring in modern times.
Conclusion
Aristotle
was one of the greatest philosophers and scientists the world has ever seen.
His contributions to logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics,
biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre are still remembering with
great respect. He was a famous educational philosopher also. His philosophical ideas, views on education,
organization of education, methods of instruction etc have greatly influenced
the field of education all around the world. Many of the tendencies towards
reformation in education today have been typically grown out of his fundamental
ideas. The kind of organization of education as suggested by Aristotle is found
still inspiring in modern times.
In
western countries Aristotle is still remembered with great respect in the field
of education, Philosophy and science. His great works influenced the cultural
development of his respective country as well as in other countries also. His
life and educational ideals are inspiring for all times and for all countries.
Reference
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Baker, John L; Modern philosophy of
education; Tata Mc Graw- Hill’s, New Delhi. ( 1980)
·
Boyd, W. and Young, E.J; The History of
Western Education; Adam and Charles Black, London. (1975).
·
Broudy, H.S; Building a Philosophy of
Education, Prentice Hall, Delhi.(1965).
·
Chaube S.P.: Western Educational
Philosophers, Vinod Pustak Mandir; Agra; 1998.
·
Naganatam, R.; New Frontiers: East and
West Philosophies of Education, Orient Longman, New Delhi (1958).
·
Sindhu I.S.; Philosophical and
Historical Basis of Education; International Publishing House; Meerut; 2005.
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